Management considerations for enhancing carcass quality and cutability
By Amanda Blair and Christina Bakker
Consumer interest in purchasing beef directly from farmers and ranchers has been trending upwards in recent years. A variety of factors may lead a consumer to purchase directly from a producer. They may have an interest in purchasing local, a desire to know the source of their protein or an interest in a specific quality or credence attribute (grass finished, exceptional marbling, specific breed, organic, etc.).
However, when purchasing beef directly most consumers expect an eating experience that would be as good or better than buying beef from retail. Individual preferences will ultimately dictate a consumer’s decision regarding which beef to purchase.
To gain customers and market share, it is important to know what you are producing and be able to consistently provide a quality product. It is also critical to be able to accurately communicate the attributes of your product and explain the traits that may differentiate it from others in the market, thus creating demand.
Raising beef cattle for a successful direct marketing program requires specific management considerations, an understanding of meat processing regulations, an appreciation for factors that influence carcass yield, and knowledge of traits that influence palatability and consumer satisfaction. Direct marketing enterprises can also be enhanced by good communication, aptly managing customer expectations, and providing excellent customer service.
Management considerations One of the first considerations for direct marketing beef is where to feed the cattle. Cow-calf producers interested in direct marketing may not have adequate facilities or feed resources to feed and finish cattle on their own operation.
One option is to work with a local feedyard or nearby producer with cattle feeding knowledge and resources. Paying feed and yardage to finish cattle at another location allows producers to retain ownership of their cattle and oversee marketing decisions without the potential need to develop facilities, acquire feed resources, or have the knowledge and skills to feed finishing diets with high levels of grain.
However, finding a custom feeder that can accommodate the number of cattle a producer would like to finish (whether it’s a few head or a pen full) and fits their management and marketing needs is key. If a custom finisher is not available or if a producer desires to manage cattle throughout the finishing period on their own, they should consider how their facilities align with their management and marketing goals.
The type of feed resources (grain- or forage-finishing), number of animals to finish, and time of year cattle are finished will determine the land and facilities needed.
General facility needs Customers interested in purchasing directly from a producer may make their purchasing decision based on the perception of how they believe cattle should be raised. For example, providing shade and windbreaks could provide the dual benefit of improving animal performance and offering a market benefit. Similarly, selecting a feeding location that is well-drained to avoid muddy conditions and considering the addition of bedding to drylot pens can improve animal comfort and performance, as well as consumer perception.
Producers interested in finishing cattle should have handling facilities that are capable of handling cattle with minimal stress and safely restraining cattle up to the desired finished weight. Consideration should be given to possible points of injury to cattle such as protrusions that could cause bruising to finished animals resulting in product loss. Use of a scale is highly recommended.
Weighing animals at the beginning of the feeding period will help target desired feed intake and final weight. Weighing cattle periodically during the feeding period can allow monitoring of animal performance to ensure cattle are meeting targeted rates of gain. A final weight can also be useful in determining if intended weight endpoints are met and determining sale price, but care should be taken weighing finished cattle to avoid bruising just before harvest.
Access to feed on a consistent basis is critical to maintain performance. Adequate bunk space is necessary to ensure all animals have access and that competition is not an issue between animals of different sizes. Designated areas for feed storage should be planned to keep feed clean, dry and minimize pests.
Animal selection The adage “begin with the end in mind” is a good one to follow when producing beef for a direct marketing program. Producers should consider their end-product goals when selecting animals to finish. The majority of consumers desire beef that is flavorful, juicy, and tender.
One of the most common selection criteria to achieve high quality beef is selecting animals with the genetic potential to marble. Marbling is the common name for intramuscular fat, which is fat deposited within muscle. Marbling is positively correlated with beef flavor, juiciness, and tenderness (Savell and Cross, 1988; Garmyn et al., 2011; O’Quinn et al., 2012) In general, as marbling increases the likelihood of a positive eating experience also increases.
Dairy breeds such as Jersey are known for exceptional eating quality (Arnett et al., 2012) and Japanese Wagyu cattle are known for exceptional marbling (Gotoh et al., 2014), however they generally take longer to finish and have reduced cutability (lower yields) compared to conventional beef breeds (Arnett et al., 2012; Gotoh et al., 2014). In contrast large-framed, heavy muscled beef breeds are higher yielding, but often lack the potential to deposit adequate levels of marbling.
If your aim is to produce cattle with acceptable marbling, there is flexibility to the breed composition, but it is important to select cattle with the genetic potential to deposit marbling. Cattle that are moderate-framed and early maturing with adequate muscling and marbling potential are ideal for many direct marketing programs.
Tenderness is another attribute related to consumer satisfaction and is a trait that can be influenced both before and after harvest (Warner et al., 2021). Producers should consider pre-slaughter factors that can influence tenderness including animal age, breed and sex.
Older animals tend to producer tougher, darker colored meat that is less desirable for whole muscle cuts such as steaks (Weston et al., 2002). While there can be a market for older animals for use in ground beef, it is not recommended to market older cows or bulls for traditional steaks and roasts due to potential issues with toughness. Additionally, cattle with Brahman influence are known to produce tougher meat due to an increase in calpastatin, which is a protein that inhibits the aging process (Warner et al., 2021).
While most American consumers prefer the taste of grain-finished beef that is tender and highly marbled, that isn’t the case for everyone. There are consumers that desire extremely lean beef with little marbling, others that prefer the flavor of grass finished beef, or others that may desire a non-tangible attribute such as an environmental practice employed on your operation.
Selecting cattle that will consistently achieve your end-product goals in the desired time frame is a critical decision that will impact profitability of the direct marketing enterprise as well as customer satisfaction.
Finishing programs With high demand for the services of small processors, producers are often scheduling harvest appointments one to two years in advance for cattle that may not even been born yet. In the current market, it is very difficult to procure a harvest appointment on short notice, which highlights the importance of coupling proper cattle selection and nutritional management to optimize direct marketing opportunities.
A good nutrition program is one of the most significant aspects of producing a high-quality carcass. A wide range of ingredients can be utilized to formulate rations to grow and finish cattle, and these diets will vary in energy and protein density resulting in different rates of gain.
Typically, with a grain-based finishing ration a growing phase is recommended that emphasizes skeletal and muscle development, and a finishing phase for enhanced marbling deposition and fattening.
Regardless of the ration being used, it is important to make changes to amount and ingredient composition gradually to allow adaptation by microbes in the rumen and avoid digestive issues such as acidosis and bloat (Harty and Rusche, 2021a). If finishing cattle on a high concentrate diet (80-90% concentrate) it is important to include roughage (10-20%) to maximize rumen and microbial health.
Cattle thrive on routine and feeding twice a day at the same time every day can help maximize performance and avoid digestive issues (Harty and Rusche, 2021b). Ionophores can help maximize feed efficiency and minimize digestive disorders; however, inclusion may not fit with some customers perception of “natural."
Grain-finishing can require 80 – 200+ days on feed to meet harvest endpoints depending on the energy of the ration, age, weight, and health of the cattle, and genetic potential for growth. In grass-finishing systems, providing high quality grass via grazing or harvested forage is necessary to maintain growth. Supplementation may be necessary at different times of the year to maintain growth. If supplementation with grain is used this should be communicated to customers to ensure their expectations are met. Grass-finished beef generally takes longer to reach their endpoint and cattle may be 18-28 months of age at harvest (Capper et al., 2012).
The key to any finishing program is to keep cattle growing efficiently using balanced feed rations. Given the variety of feedstuffs available and specific needs of each operation consulting a nutritionist or University Extension beef specialist to help design and balance rations is highly recommended.
The type of finishing ration utilized can impact animal performance as well as palatability. While there is room for both grass- and grain-finished beef in the beef marketplace it is important to understand and accurately represent your product. It’s important to note that the typical U.S. beef consumer is accustomed to the flavor profile and palatability attributes of grain-finished beef (Van Elswyk and McNeill, 2014).
Beef from grass-finished animals may be identified as having a grassy flavor and can have a different cooking aroma compared with grain-finished beef. Also, consumers may note a difference in the visual appearance as the fat of grass-finished beef can be more yellow in color and the lean tissue can be darker (Crouse et al., 1984; Leheska et al., 2008). Grass-finished beef is also generally finished at a lighter weight than grain-finished beef and, as a result, are often leaner with less marbling (Leheska et al., 2008; Van Elswyk and McNeill, 2014).
Health and growth promotants Customers may inquire about the use of antibiotics or growth promoting implants. This information should be shared as appropriate without disparaging others who chose to use or not use these technologies.
Herd health programs generally involve prevention of disease through vaccination protocols and control of internal and external parasites. When animals become sick and antibiotics are used as appropriate to restore health, they can be marketed after the appropriate withdrawal time, but they should not carry an antibiotic-free claim.
While it may be tempting to try and capture value from a sick or poor doing animal by selling it as freezer beef, it should be noted that animals that have been sick and treated multiple times can produce lower quality carcasses (reduced marbling score) (Holland et al., 2010).
Proper use of hormone implants to improve growth rate allows for cattle to be finished earlier thereby requiring less time on feed and fewer resources per pound of meat produced (Johnson et al., 2013; Webb et al., 2020). However, the implant strategy, potency and timing should be considered to ensure they are meeting your growth promotant goals without detrimental impacts on marbling and tenderness. A nutritionist, pharmaceutical representative or University Extension feedlot specialist can be consulted to meet these goals for your specific operation.
The resource savings created by using implants could be promoted to consumers that are environmentally conscious. Conversely, if you are seeking to market beef raised without added hormones, avoidance of these technologies can also be promoted.
With all animal health products and technologies, it is critical to follow the label instructions on slaughter withdrawal time and it is recommended that all producers adhere to the Beef Quality Assurance guidelines for administration of these products.
Determining endpoints; Avoiding carcass defects
Market readiness Evaluation of market readiness is a skill that improves with experience. Typically, cattle grow skeletal and muscle mass until they near a mature frame and reach their muscle growth potential. Marbling has been shown to be continuously deposited throughout growth, given that the animal is on an adequate plane of nutrition, whereas subcutaneous fat deposition increases substantially once skeletal and muscle growth potential has been met.
Assessment of subcutaneous fat is one means of determining market readiness. Fat is deposited from anterior (front) to posterior (rear) of the animal, so it is important to observe how fat deposition has progressed for timely marketing.
Common points to observe are fat fill in the brisket area, fat cover over the back (particularly over the 12th and 13th ribs), fat accumulation on either side of the tailhead, as well as in the udder or cod area of heifers and steers, respectively.
Cattle vary widely in their weight at market endpoint; however, it is common for grain-finished cattle to weight 1200-1450 pounds at harvest and grass-finished cattle to weigh 1000-1200 pounds.
The desired 12th rib fat thickness for marketing beef has traditionally been in the range of 0.4 - 0.5 inches, however with current genetics and larger carcass weights it is not uncommon to see grain-finished cattle with 0.6 - 0.8 inches of backfat. Grass-finished cattle will typically finish with less backfat (0.2 – 0.4 inches).
Evaluation of actual hot carcass weight is also important to assessing market readiness. Typical beef carcass weight should range from 650-950 pounds, depending on sex, feeding program, and cattle type. However, customer preference may influence your decision to harvest at a leaner or fatter level.
It is recommended to evaluate the actual carcass by measuring fat thickness at the 12th rib, ribeye area, and marbling score. These measurements will determine the level of finish, muscle size, and marbling that was actually achieved. This data can help with future decisions regarding animal selection and market timing (a University Extension meat science specialist can be consulted to train or assist with these measurements).
Influence of stress in finished cattle Cattle producers have long appreciated the connection between proper animal care and the health and productivity of their herds. Producers involved in directly marketing beef should adhere to best management practices with the goal of consistently producing a quality end-product that meets consumer demands.
Using low-stress handling techniques on finished cattle that are close to slaughter is especially impactful to beef quality because they reduce stress, and stress is a major contributor to several quality defects in cattle (Grandin, 2020).
Dark cutters Dark cutting beef is the result of a prolonged stress such as mixing animals, fighting, feed deprivation, drastic changes in ambient temperature, chronic illness, heifers in heat or any combination of events that deplete muscle glycogen prior to slaughter (Scanga et al., 1997; Grandin, 2020). Glycogen is the storage form of glucose and serves as an energy reserve to fuel muscle contraction. Stressors cause the release of hormones such as epinephrine that function to break down muscle glycogen as an immediate source of energy.
If glycogen stores are exhausted at the point of slaughter muscle does not progress through the normal conversion of muscle to meat. Instead, the lack of glycogen leads to lower-than-normal lactic acid production resulting in a limited pH decline and a product characterized by extremely dark colored lean tissue, high water-holding capacity, limited shelf-life and a sticky texture. In addition, dark cutting beef is highly variable when analyzed for tenderness, one of the most important beef quality attributes (Wulf et al, 2002).
Bruising Bruising is caused when a blow or impact ruptures the small blood vessels under the skin. A bruise could be caused by a stick or stone, animal horn, metal projection from holding or working facilities, or animal fall and could happen anytime during transport, handling or holding prior to slaughter. Stress during these events can increase excitability and the chances of bruising.
Normally a bruise will resolve when the underlying blood is degraded and clears from the area. However, if a bruise occurs close to the time of slaughter and the body is not able to heal from the event the bruise will be present on the carcass. Bruised areas of the carcass are trimmed away, and that tissue is condemned therefore contributing to a reduction in total meat yield and carcass value (Grandin, 2017, Harris et al., 2017).
Blood splash Blood splash is a condition that occurs when small blood vessels located in muscle rupture allowing blood to leak into the surrounding tissue. This blood then appears in the meat as a dark red spot and is visually undesirable. Stress can elevate blood pressure and contribute to the incidence of blood splash in beef cattle (Meat Technology Update, 2006; Grandin, 2020).
Carcass / product considerations
Inspection regulations When cattle are ready for harvest, farmers and ranchers must choose a locker facility to take their animals to for processing. In a direct marketing system, cattle are typically harvested at small, local butcher shops. Depending on the customer base and business goals, cattle producers have three meat inspection options to have their beef processed: custom exempt, state inspection, and federal inspection.
Custom exempt Custom exempt processing facilities are very common in rural areas. These facilities provide slaughter and processing services and return the meat to the owners of the animal. The meat that is processed by custom exempt facilities is for in-home use by the owner, their household and their non-paying guests. The meat produced at these facilities must be labeled “Not For Sale” and may not be sold by the owner or donated.
Cattle producers can still deliver cattle to custom exempt facilities; however, at the point of slaughter, the animal must be owned by the individual(s) who will be taking the meat home. This means that the consumer will pay the producer for the live animal and the processor for the slaughter and processing services.
State or federal inspection Cattle producers intending to direct market retail cuts to consumers need to have their animals processed at state or federally inspected facilities. South Dakota and Wyoming operate state meat inspection programs while Colorado and Nebraska only operate under USDA inspection. The requirements of state inspection programs are that they are at least “equal to” the rigor of federal inspection. The largest difference between state and federal inspection is that state inspected meat can only be sold within state lines while federally inspected meat can be sold in interstate commerce and be exported.
Product consistency One of the most important factors for customers to become repeat customers is consistency of product. While no cattle producer can guarantee that every animal will produce meat with the exact same eating experience, there are live animal and carcass management decisions that can help improve consistency.
Tenderness As mentioned earlier, younger animals generally produce more tender meat than older animals. Because of this, it is important for tenderness consistency to slaughter animals at roughly the same age every time. Another factor that impacts tenderness of meat is postmortem aging (also referred to as hang time). Research has shown that considerable improvements in tenderness can be observed until 14 - 21 days of aging (additional improvements can be made after that point but they are not as noticeable).
Flavor Meat flavor can be impacted by a variety of factors. One of the most influential factors is animal diet, specifically finishing diet. Animals from a grain finishing system produce meat that has a different flavor than animals from a forage finishing system. While neither system results in unacceptable meat quality or flavor, consumers tend to have a strong preference for one flavor over the other.
On the carcass side, aging method (wet or dry) has one of the strongest impacts on flavor. Dry aging can be done on a whole carcass or on primal cuts and is accomplished by leaving the meat exposed to the air in the cooler. Wet aging is done on primal or retail cuts and is done by vacuum sealing the meat and leaving it in refrigerated conditions. Dry aging tends to impart a more intense beef flavor than wet aging.
Yield expectations A very common question meat science Extension specialists receive is “I only received 500 pounds of beef back from a 1200 pound steer. Did the locker steal my meat?” The answer to that questions is “probably not”. Individuals buying bulk beef can expect 30 to 50 percent retail cut yield from an animal’s live weight (Wulf, 1999). Where exactly an animal’s retail cut yield will fall depends on dressing percentage and cutting yield.
Dressing percentage Dressing percentage is the percentage of live weight that makes up the carcass. Average beef animals have a dressing percentage of about 63% while dairy steers yield about 59%. This number can be impacted by a variety of factors including gut fill, muscling, fatness, hide cleanliness and breed characteristics.
The influence each of these factors has on dressing percentage depends on if the weight contributed by each factor stays with the carcass or not. For instance, animals with more fat or muscling have increased dressing percentages compared to leaner or lighter muscled animals because muscle and fat stay on the carcass. If an animal has a lot of gut fill or mud stuck to their hide, the dressing percentage will be decreased because that weight does not stay with the carcass. Dairy or dairy influenced animals tend to have lower dressing percentages because they generally have larger heads and longer (heavier) legs that do not remain with the carcass.
Cutting yield The cutting yield is the percentage of the carcass that ends up packaged for the consumer and is influenced by the cutting specifications set by the consumer as well as carcass composition. Carcasses that are leaner and heavier muscled will have an increased cutting yield than fatter, lighter muscled carcasses. This is because most retail cuts are trimmed to 1/8 to 1/4 inches of subcutaneous fat (also known as back fat). Fatter carcasses require more trimming than leaner carcasses.
Another factor that determines cutting yield is whether the cuts are made boneless or left bone-in. Bone-in products such as T-bone steaks or bone-in chuck roasts will weigh more than their boneless counter parts and increase the yield of the carcass.
Another factor that affects cutting yield is the fat content of ground product. A common ground beef blend is 80% lean and 20% fat. However, if the consumer desires leaner ground product the overall yield will decrease as more fat is removed from the packaged product.
The final factor that impacts cutting yield is the skill of the butcher. The more experience a butcher has cutting certain cuts of beef, the better they are at maximizing the yield of that cut. The producer should keep this in mind if they are asking the butcher to fabricate different cuts than what are normally offered as it could negatively impact the cutting yield.
Many custom processors fabricate beef carcasses using a band saw and may not be willing or able to cut boneless steaks and roasts. If boneless cuts are important to the business model or customers, the producer should make sure the meat processor is willing to make them before scheduling animals for slaughter.
Carcass cutout A beef side can be fabricated into eight primal regions: chuck, rib, loin, round, flank, plate, brisket and shank. The chuck and the round are the largest primals in the carcass, collectively making up ~50% of the weight of the side (Holland, et al., 2014). Except for steaks such as the flat iron, chuck eye, and eye of round, these two primals are primarily cut into roasts, stew meat and ground beef. The rib and the loin make up the “middle meats” and provide the well-known steaks such as the ribeye, T-bone, New York strip, and filet mignon. However, these primals only make up ~27% of the carcass.
This concept can be difficult to grasp for a customer who is new to buying beef in bulk and was expecting to get all of their product back as steaks. The flank, brisket, plate, and shank comprise the remaining 25% of the carcass, yield few retail cuts, and are predominately used for ground beef.
Cutting instructions Providing cutting instructions is potential area producers can enhance customer service by providing education on carcass breakdown and approximate amounts of each type of cut to expect. This information can be requested from most University Extension meat science specialists, or producers can work directly with their butcher to create a personalized cut list. It may also be beneficial to include recommended cutting and packaging information; including steak thickness and quantity per package, the weight of ground beef per package, or the desired weight of roasts.
It is also important to convey to the consumer that some popular cuts may not be available if others are chosen. For example, if they want T-bone steaks, they will not get New York strips and filet mignon because they are cut from the same muscles; T-bones are just the bone-in version. The same is true for bone in chuck or arm roasts and flat iron or Denver cut steaks.
Another concept that may surprise consumers is the size of a bone-in sirloin steak. While the average consumer is used to boneless baseball sized sirloin steaks, custom butchers commonly cut sirloin steaks that include all sirloin muscles and can feed two to three people.
Freezer space Once the meat is cut, packaged, and frozen, the consumer must then store it in their home freezer. The space needed for storage is dependent on both the yield of the animal, the types of cuts that were ordered, and how the meat was packaged.
An average beef animal with a 1200 pound live weight could produce approximately 500 pounds of retail cuts. A consumer who purchased a quarter of beef from this animal will likely need 4.5 to 5.5 cubic feet of freezer space (University of Minnesota, 2020). Large cuts such as a whole brisket and ground beef stuffed in chubs will require more space to store than smaller roasts and steaks and ground beef packaged in bricks simply because of stacking efficiency.
Implications Addition of a direct marketing enterprise has the potential to increase income of a cattle operation and allows producers to have control over animal quality, nutrition, management, and health throughout the finishing period. Producers should consider the attributes that differentiate their product and seek ways to consistently produce beef that meets their customer’s demands. Consumers generally desire flavorful, juicy, tender beef with a bright cherry red color. To meet this expectation, it is recommended to market beef that is healthy, young, and has been on an appropriate finishing ration. Direct marketing also requires cattle producers to be knowledgeable salesmen and provide guidance to their customers on processing decisions, so they have a better idea of what to expect from the final product.
References can be found in The Range Beef Cow Symposium XXVII Proceedings.
Blair is a professor Extension meat science specialist and Bakker is an assistant professor and Extension meat science specialist, both with South Dakota State University.